LResearch Research and Literature

Describe your process for developing hypotheses (what you read, who you talked with).

The first step I took in this process of developing hypotheses was to identify the evidence-based areas of strengths and needs from the summative assessments and qualitative data of ELLs in my inquiry group. I then developed some hypotheses using my experience and professional knowledge that I had on analysing literacy data from standardized tests. I came up with the following specific hypotheses. 

1) If I increase exposure to ‘comprehensible input’ through extensive and intensive reading at school, ELLs in my inquiry group will increase their English reading comprehension.

2) If I develop a focused-teaching approach on different text types or genres and their features, this  will contribute to increase the English reading comprehension among ELLs of my inquiry group. This will be an important element of my intensive reading programme in class.

3) If I develop a focused-teaching approach on different reading strategies, this will equip learners in my inquiry group to increase the comprehension of what they read. This will be an important element of my intensive reading programme in class.

4) If I develop a focused-teaching approach on the vocabulary development of ELLs in my inquiry group, this will help  increase the comprehension of what they read. This will be an important element of both my intensive and extensive reading programme in class.

5) If I develop a focused-approach on extensive reading for ELLs in my inquiry group, where they will engage in increasing their ‘reading milage’, this might contribute to the development of their interest and love for reading, as well as their learning of aspects of English language. This will help increase their reading comprehension.

6) If I develop a focused-approach on lowering the ‘affective filters’ of ELLs in my inquiry group, their motivation and confidence may develop to engage them in their learning of English language through the extensive and intensive reading offered in class. This might contribute to an increase in their reading comprehension.

The next step in the process was I decided to talk to Dr Jannie van Hees and sought advices about the hypotheses I developed and what approach to use in addressing those needs. I shared with her my thinking of implementing a reading programme as a way of providing input in English for my learners. She strongly felt that a more effective approach of reading to address needs of ELLs in my inquiry group would be selecting and reading quantity and quality texts with a 'dive in' approach to reading those texts with the learners. I felt this was closely in line with hypotheses 2 & 3 that I have developed.
She also felt that a focus on vocabulary development would contribute to increasing reading ability in learners. She recommended this text, 'What every primary school teacher should know about vocabulary' written by Dr Jannie van Hees and Professor Paul Nation as a good resource for teaching and developing learners' vocabulary.

Another step I took further into this process was to check what research in literature may have to say about hypotheses that I developed. I felt it was important that my hypotheses are supported by research findings.

I read the following New Zealand research-based reports which present research findings and recommendations on factors and practices most effective for second language acquisition and learning.

Franken & McComish (2003); Improving English Language Outcomes for Students Receiving ESOL Services in New Zealand Schools, with a Particular Focus on New Immigrants: Report to the Ministry of Education; Ministry of Education, New Zealand, Wellington.

After presenting specific research findings on different factors relating to second language learning, Fraken & McComish state that research suggested the following as summary of good practice for second language learning (only 4 out of 7 are given here):

• Learners should be given explicit and focused instruction on all aspects of language 

• They should be given opportunities to use language in extended contexts, as well as comprehend language 

• They need opportunities to interact on meaningful material, especially with a teacher 

• They need very extensive language learning opportunities 

Vocabulary development as an aspect of language should be given explicit and focused instruction. The principles of best practice in vocabulary learning which apply to both L1 and L2 learners and their teachers are: 

• pay a great deal of attention to word learning 

• focus on meaning and use in context – both receptive and productive use 

• do this through activities which increase involvement of the students with word meaning and use.

The principles specific to L2 learners are: 

• follow a specific programme designed so that NESB students can learn more words per day than L1 students in order to catch up 

• target particular words – based on researched word lists for educational contexts 

• use whatever strategies are acceptable to and effective for the learners, including repetition, memorization of lists, and words shown by pictures, and translation.

I find these practices to be supporting my hypotheses 1 to 5, which means that my hypotheses are supported by research.

Ellis (2005); Instructed Second Language Acquisition - A Lierature Review; Ministry of Education; Wellington

This review aims to examine the theory and research that has addressed what constitutes effective pedagogy for the acquisition of a second language (L2) in a classroom context. The question this review aims to answer is, How can instruction best ensure successful language learning?

After examining a range of research which explored instruction in relation to L2 acquisition, considering the theories of learning that underlie three mainstream approaches to language teaching, and reviewing studies that have addressed how instruction can create the kinds of conditions needed for successful classroom learning, Professor Ellis provides a number of generalisations that can constitute a broad basis for ‘evidence-based practice’. These are expressed as a set of ten general principles – as a guideline for effective instructional practice. Those which are relevant to my hypotheses are presented here (4 out of 10).

- Principle 2: Instruction needs to ensure that learners focus predominantly on meaning

- Principle 6: Successful instructed language learning requires extensive L2 input

- Principle 8: The opportunity to interact in the L2 is central to developing L2 proficiency

- Principle 9: Instruction needs to take account of individual differences in learners 

Principle 6 relates to my hypotheses 1 & 6. This principle states that if learners do not receive exposure to the target language they cannot acquire it. In general, the more exposure they receive, the more and the faster they will learn. Though used more as a theory in second language acquisition, Krashen (1981, 1994) adopted a very strong position on the importance of input. He points to studies that have shown that length of residence in the country where the language is spoken is related to language proficiency and that have found positive correlations between the amount of reading reported and proficiency/ literacy. This is widely recognized in instructional language learning too. 'Comprehensible input' is language input that can be understood by listeners despite them not understanding all the words and structures in it. It is described as one level above that of the learners if it can only just be understood. According to Krashen's theory of language acquisition, giving learners this kind of input helps them acquire language naturally, rather than learn it consciously.

Principle 9 relates to my hypothesis 6. This principle states that instruction needs to take account of individual differences in learners. It means that a  considerable variability in the rate of learning and in the ultimate level of achievement happens when the instruction is matched with student' aptitude for learning and motivation. This is related to Krahsen's affective filter hypothesis in second language acquisition, which states that one obstacle which affects language acquisition is the affective filter; it is like a 'screen' that is influenced by emotional variables that can prevent learning.  This hypothetical filter does not impact acquisition directly but it prevents input from reaching the language acquisition part of the brain.  According to Krashen the affective filter can be prompted by many different variables including anxiety, self-confidence, motivation and stress. 

Education Review Office (ERO) (2018); Teaching approaches and strategies that work - Keeping Children Engaged and Achieving in Reading;  New Zealand Government

This is an ERO's report on teaching strategies that work on engaging children to read and they achieve in reading. The report features strategies and approaches observed in 40 primary schools selected from across New Zealand. These strategies contribute to a number of students in the upper primary years (Years 5 to 8) achieving at or above the expected standard had increased. The report includes narratives from each school who has found strategies most effective in raising achievement in reading. 

One narrative I found relevant to my hypotheses is the implementing of a variety of research-based strategies and approaches to improve reading at Woodleigh School at Taranaki. This narrative shares the variety of strategies teachers and leaders used to improve children’s reading achievement, and the resources and processes they used to make sure strategies were consistently applied. 

Their approach had the following three tiers that drew on ideas from different research articles teachers had investigated. 
1. Teachers used browse boxes to extend children’s reading stamina. The books in the browse boxes were selected by the children with some guidance from their teachers. The aim was to increase the range and variety of text children read by ensuring the books in the browsing boxes catered for their diverse interests, needs, values and perspectives.

 2. Teachers introduced the Daily 5 framework and used it to engage learners in independent choices within the classroom literacy programme. Daily 5 gave children the choice of five activities to work on independently to achieve their personal literacy goals. The activities included: 
- read to self 
- work on writing
- read to someone
- listen to reading
- word work.

3. Teachers used High 5 to focus on the teaching of reading comprehension through: 
- activating background knowledge
- for children to construct meaning and develop new understandings
- questioning to help build a particular aspect of the child’s knowledge such as thinking critically 
- analysing text structure to help children predict unknown words or phrases
- creating mental images so children would use their imagination to make connections to the ideas from the text with their prior knowledge
- summarising by teaching children to differentiate between important points and supporting detail. 

By using the higher-level texts and carefully supporting children to read the text in small chunks, the priority students grew in confidence and built their perception of themselves as ‘readers’. Teachers described the confidence children gained when they were able to read the same books as their peers as immense. 

I find this successful implementation of a variety of research-based strategies and approaches to improve reading very relevant to hypothesis 3 that I have developed.   

In regard to the contribution of reading practice in independent or extensive reading, Willingham (2009) states that practice is recognised as an essential component of any learning process. Muller & Dweck (1998) refer to the role of practice and hard work (rather than fixed intelligence) in academic accomplishments is beneficial for both motivation and performance. As it relates to reading in particular, research indicates that time spent reading books is the best predictor of overall academic achievement, even more so than socioeconomic status or ethnicity (Kirsch et al., 2002). Research show that reading practice builds vocabulary, fluency, comprehension, writing and higher order thinking skills. Though beneficial in all forms, reading practice is most effective when guided—that is, when it is coupled with feedback and instructional support tailored to the individual student.